Leadership And Management Skills Portfolio

Introduction This reflective work focuses on assessing my personal weaknesses in different areas. It starts by a self –assessment of my personal development needs.The next section looks at the difficulties I experienced on various issues. Finally, the action plans for self-development in the various areas are suggested. Portfolio Section 1Planning and personal management skills Using a paper exercise, I assessed my planning and personal management skills to determine areas of development. Concerning planning, I scored 13, which is a relatively low score. This indicates an area for development because my score was less than 24, which was the score I had to attain to show that I did not further development. I knew this was a weakness and a concern for me prior to starting my postgraduate studies while working full time. On the time management dimension, I scored 15 and this demonstrated a need for further development. I should have a score of above 24 to demonstrate that this area did not require further development. The issue of time management was a concern for me because of starting my postgraduate studies and working full time. I have had challenges in the past characterized by attempting to do too much at work and not managing my time effectively. The low scores on both planning and time manageme nt reveal that I have challenges with task prioritization. An action plan for self-development in these areas is presented later under task prioritization.Learning style Honey and Mumford designed a Learning Styles Questionnaire that is used in assessing the learning styles of individuals, and these are categorised into activists, theorists, pragmatists, and reflectors (Jarvis, 2005). When I completed this questionnaire, the results showed that I have a strong preference for the activist learning style and a moderate preference for the pragmatist learning style. As an activist, I enjoy novel experiences, I am active and depend on intuitive decision making and I have an aversion to structure (Jarvis, 2005). I learn best from learning activities that provide new problems and experiences, role playing and working together with others in group tasks and opportunities for dealing with challenging tasks. In addition, I prefer tasks with high visibility including presentations, leading discussions, and chairing meetings.However, I learn less when I have to listen to lectures, think, write or read on my own, or absorb and understand a lot of data. Furthermore, my learning is impaired when I have to follow precise instructions without any form of flexibility. As a pragmatist, I prefer risk-taking, group work and application and testing of concepts (Jarvis, 2005). I learn best when there is a clear association between the learning topic and actual issues in life. Learning activities should be structured around demonstrating techniques for accomplishing tasks with clear, realistic advantages. Furthermore, I prefer to be provided with opportunities for trying out and practicing techniques with feedback or coaching from a reliable expert. Similarly, I need examples or models that I can emulate, and I should be taught techniques that are presently applicable to my work context. I also prefer being offered with opportunities for immediately applying any new knowledge that I have learnt. As a pragmatist, l learn less when the learning activities are not associated with an immediate need, lack clear guidelines, and when there are obstacles to implementation of acquired knowledge. Such obstacles can be personal, managerial, organisational or poli tical in nature. These learning styles have an important influence on the learning activities undertaken in the action plan for developing different skills as demonstrated later. Assessment of how I work In a paper exercise, I assessed the way I work and the results revealed that I procrastinate when faced with tasks that I do not really like, I spend a lot of time attempting to perfect things, and I am unable to find things and notes whenever I require them. This is an indication that I have poor prioritization skills, and this will be addressed through an action plan on task prioritization that is explained later.Personality indexI assessed my personality index using an online exercise, and the results demonstrated that I possess various traits. First, I demonstrate low assertiveness as I do not need to be in constant control, and I have a higher orientation toward teamwork than tasks. Second, I am an extreme extrovert because I need to discuss issues in detail with other people. Third, I am extremely impatient as I find it challenging to concentrate on repetitive tasks, and I have a high sense of urgency. Finally, I am highly detailed because I want to acquire knowledge and become an expert. These traits of my personality affect how learning activities will be structured in the action plan to improve learning. Portfolio Section 2Group leadershipIn the first week of my course work, I was leader of my group. I did not know my fellow colleagues very well as we had just started on the course. Therefore, stepping up and being a leader of people I did not know was tough considering that I am not a manager or leader at work. I had to lead the group in the preparation of a group presentation on a case study of someone else’s leadership skills and present with them. I needed to take control and set the direction for the team more rapidly, and a lot of time was wasted as I did not know what was expected of me as a leader. For instance, a group or team leader is required to set the goal of the group and establish performance expectations (Morgeson, DeRue & Karam, 2010). This was a challenging undertaking as I decided to choose an informal approach to this activity where the group members actively facilitated the process of setting goals and determining how the members would be held responsible in relation to the performance expectations. This approach resulted in wastage of time because it was difficult for consensus to be achieved among the group members on the goals and performance expectations. Similarly, I had challenges in structuring and planning the group in terms of developing a shared understanding among the group members on the best approach for coordinating action and working together to achieve the established goals (Morgeson et al., 2010). I faced difficulties in determining how the activities would be performed, the individual’s responsible for specific tasks, and when the group activities would be done. On the issue of when the group activities would be performed, it was challenging to achieve consensus because the group members had conflicting schedules that interfered with choosing an appropriate time for the group meeting to determine the progress of the tasks. Although I faced various challenges during the initial process of forming group, I eventually embodied the role of the group leader. However, I did not always allow everyone to have input. It is suggested that soliciting and using continuing feedback from the group members is vital for achievin g the group objectives (Morgeson et al., 2010). By failing to allow the group members to offer their input into the group presentation, I ended up not including their diverse and useful perspectives on the group activity.Coaching sessionI acted as a coach on how to reactively write. There are specific skills required of coaches including social competence, emotional competence, listening, questioning, framing and contributing (Maltbia, Marsick & Ghosh, 2014). Social competence is associated with establishing relationships with individuals being coached by increasing a supportive and a safe environment that is characterized by freedom in expression thoughts, mutual respect, and trusted partnership (Goleman, 2006). However, I lacked in this competency as I did not allow the individuals I was coaching to freely express their opinions on reactive writing. Rather than encouraging engagement with my peers, I monopolized the coaching process. Emotional competence is associated with having self-awareness of one’s emotions and those of other people to ensure that the coaching relationship is experienced as productive, flexible, and open (Maltbia et al., 2014). I had a difficult time managing my own emotions when coaching others as I got angry whenever any person I was coaching did not understand what I was communicating to him or her. Furthermore, I did not recognize the effects of my actions on the emotions of the people I was coaching. For instance, some of the people I was coaching were visibly frustrated during the coaching process but I did not take time to address these issues. Listening involves understanding the meaning of what the person under coaching is saying with regard to achieving desired outcomes (Maltbia et al., 2014). When I started the coaching session, I did not ask the person I was coaching the specific outcomes they desired from this activity. It is suggested that a hierarchy should not exist in the relationship between the coach and the p eople being coached (O’Broin & Palmer, 2009). By failing to include the objectives of the people being coached into this relationship, their agenda failed to take precedence in the coaching process. As a coaching skill, questioning entails inquiry for revealing the information necessary with the highest benefit to the client (Maltbia et al., 2014). I was lacking in this competence as I rarely asked the person I was coaching questions related to the coaching process. I took on the role of an active coach and required the people I was coaching to assume a passive role in this process.Framing is characterized by expanding the world views of the people being coached through an examination of whether learning is rooted in experience (Maltbia et al., 2014). This skill requires the coach to establish whether the coaching process has had a positive effect on learning in terms of addressing the initial challenge or problem that influenced this activity to be undertaken. During the coaching sessions, I did not frame the coaching process to establish if the people I was coaching had benefited from this activity. Finally, contributing entails effective communication during the coaching sess ion as a mechanism for achieving balance between the support and challenge required for facilitating growth and learning (Maltbia et al., 2014). As initially mentioned, I monopolized conversations, and this prevented the people I was coaching from effectively contributing to the coaching process. Moreover, I failed to offer adequate challenges to promote learning in relation to reactive writing.Role playing as a manager in an appraisalPerformance appraisal is an important process as it is utilised in assessing recent performance and addressing future opportunities and objectives (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2014).). When conducting a performance appraisal, employees have to be provided with sufficient notice of the expected performance standards and timely and regular feedback about their performance (Heslin & VandeWalle, 2011). During my role play as a manager in an appraisal, I did not offer timely and regular feedback on individual performance toward the ach ievement of expected performance standards. It is also suggested that employees should have an input in the appraisal process and be provided with opportunities for challenging it if they view it as being unfair (Heslin & VandeWalle, 2011). Conversely, during the appraisal, I did not allow the individuals with opportunities for presenting their views and opinions in relation to assessment of their performance. In this regard, I failed to consider the voice of these individuals that would have provided a deeper understanding of the performance achieved.Acting as a consultantI took up the role of as a consultant in a team of two individuals to pitch to a client our ideas for their people strategy of their new business. According to the Institute of Management Consultants (2014), consultants need competencies to deliver consulting services. Some of these competencies are balanced judgment, awareness of the organisational context and external environment, and listening (de Caluwe & Re itsma, 2010). Balanced judgment entails a comparison of potential courses of action and evaluating available information and using relevant criteria, which leads to realistic decisions (de Caluwe & Reitsma, 2010). In the role of consultants, my colleague and I only focused on a single course of action for the organisation in relation to the people strategy for the new business. Consequently, when the clients asked us any alternative courses of actions that might be undertaken, we were unable to provide satisfactory responses because we were unprepared. Furthermore, external environment awareness is related to being adequately informed about issues in the business environment that have influences on strategies and utilising such knowledge for the benefit of the organisation (de Caluwe & Reitsma, 2010). In our case, we considered legal, economic and technological factors that affect an organisation’s people strategy. However, we failed to consider trends influencing human reso urces in the organisation and political issues. Thus, the clients were dissatisfied as the people strategy we developed did not take into consideration all the factors in the business environment that have impacts on the organisation’s human resources management strategy. Listening skills are important in management consultancy as they provide the client with the space for expressing their opinions, focusing on their reactions, responding suitably and posing further questions (de Caluwe & Reitsma, 2010). Regarding this, my colleague and I did not focus on the clients’ reactions. We were focused on pitching our strategy and thus we were unable to capture nonverbal signals that would have communicated to us whether the clients were in agreement with the arguments we had made in the people strategy that the organisation had to adopt. Regarding organisational context, management consultants are expected to understand how an organisation operates and considering these issues when developing an action (de Caluwe & Reitsma, 2010). We strived to develop a people strategy that reflected the organisation’s current practices related to management of human resources. However, the information related to this issue was not easily available. Therefore, we ended up pitching a people strategy that we considered as non-existing in the organisation. We later discovered that some aspects of the people strategy were already present in the organisation, which means that we had not provided a more effective solution to the clients.Task prioritisation I had two finance classes but missed the first one but then I attended the second class. It was only after attending the second class that I realised that I should have attended the first one. The content covered in the second class was only a continuation of the issues addressed in the first class. Therefore, by failing to attend the first class, I missed out on the necessary context for understanding the topics covered in the second class. This negatively interfered with my learning. Upon reflection, I learned that I did not attend the first class because I did not prioritise the things that I had to do. I have to deal with conflicting demands of working full time and pursuing my postgradu ate education (Armstrong, 2012). In this regard, I missed the first finance class because I was attending a meeting at work where I was presenting an important report to senior management.Negotiating as a ClientMy colleague and I assumed the role of a client negotiating with a software vendor on delivery times and price. As clients, we argued and debated with the software vendor on the relevant issues. For instance, there was prolonged argument and debate on the delivery times because we were considering small insignificant factors on this issue. The outcome was that the arguments related to the main issue of delivery times were largely neglected. Indeed, it is suggested that it is important to have awareness of any insignificant arguments that might derail the negotiation process (Pinet & Sander, 2013). In our case, we concentrated on being right rather than winning the arguments associated with the price and delivery times. The negotiation process deviated from the agenda establi shed prior to the meeting with the software vendor. Consequently, a lot of time was wasted on these arguments and compromises were achieved after a protracted process.Portfolio Section 3This section presents an action plan for developing my postgraduate, management and leadership skills further. The action plan covers skills required for group leadership, management consultant, appraisal manager, coaching, negotiation, and task prioritization as presented below.Action plan for group leadership skillsObjective To improve my skills in leading and managing groups in completion, of course, related tasks Tasks Read and brainstorm with my peers on available literature including books, reputable online articles and journal articles about team leadership. I will focus on literature that looks at leadership functions on the different phases of teams namely the transition and action stages. The transition stage is a time when a group or team focuses on activities associated with the team’s structures, planning tasks, and assessing the performance of the team in terms of the whether the team has the ability of achieving its objectives (Marks, Mathieu & Zaccaro, 2001). The specific leadership skills that I will learn about for this phase include defining the mission of the team, goals, and performance standards, structuring responsibilities and roles in the team, and promoting feedback processes (Morgeson et al., 2010). The action stage is where the team or group members are focused on tasks that directly contribute to goal achievement (Marks et al., 2001). In this phase, I will learn rele vant leadership skills including creating a positive climate in the group, encouraging autonomous actions by members, resource acquisition for the group, problem solving, involvement in the group’s work, and monitoring the group(Morgeson et al., 2010). Discuss with managers and leaders in my workplace about effective approaches for leading and managing groups or teams Evaluation After acquisition of the necessary leadership skills, I will apply to future group assignments in my course work. I will evaluate the acquired group leadership skills by asking my peers to rate my performance as a leader. I will design a checklist where the group members will provide their responses about my overall leadership skills and areas that require improvement. Review date The reading of literature, applying the relevant knowledge to actual practice, and evaluating leadership skills will be reviewed on a regular basis whenever there is a group assignment.Action plan for coaching skillsObjective To become a very effective coach Tasks Read books, journal articles, and online publications on the coaching process and the required skills and competencies for this activity followed by a brainstorming exercise with my colleagues. Participate in training in coaching provided by my organisations to equip with necessary skills. Ask a senior manager in my workplace to act as my coach to enable me to understand this process from a practical perspective and model it. Evaluation The knowledge acquired from literature, training, and on-the-practice will be utilised in coaching my peers in coursework on different topics. The performance data that will be collected to establish the level of my effectiveness as a coach will be obtained from interviewing the individual that I will be coaching. Review date Ongoing throughout my course work.Action plan for management consultant skillsObjective To enhance my skills as a management consultant Tasks Read available literature on management consultancy and look at case studies on the process of management consultation. After reading alone, I will brainstorm these issues with my study group. Discuss with management consultants within and outside my organisation to learn the criteria for success. Evaluation Evaluation will be based on establishing the extent to which the client is able to achieve desired outcomes in relation to the consultation services I will offer them. This will be achieved by using a questionnaire to ask the clients whether I demonstrate the skills of a management consultant. Review date Ongoing based on management consultancy projects.Action plan for managerial skills in appraisalsObjective To improve my skills in conducting performance appraisals Tasks Read widely and brainstorm on skills for performance appraisals. Role playing with my peers on posing the right questions to the individual under appraisal. Discuss with senior managers in my workplace about successfully performing performance appraisals. Evaluation The assessment of my skills in this area will be based on determining to which I successfully complete a performance appraisal. This will involve asking individuals involved in the appraisal process to rate my performance using a checklist. Review date This activity will be completed on a monthly basis.Action plan for negotiation skillsObjective To improve my negotiation skills as a client Tasks Reading widely and brainstorming with colleagues on negotiation skills for clients to understand negotiation skills, negotiation phases, and sources of conflict in negotiation process. Engage in role play to assist in clarification of responsibilities and roles in working in a negotiating team. Evaluation Evaluation will involve collecting evidence indicating whether I applied competencies and skills required in negotiating as a client. This will be achieved by interviewing the other parties to the negotiation process to determine the level of my skills in negotiating as a client. Review date This will be completed by February 2015.Action plan for task prioritizationObjective To enhance my skills in prioritizing both work and education tasks. Tasks Listing all the tasks that I have to perform on a daily basis in my work and college and categorising them based on their impacts on my work and educational pursuits. Using a personal calendar to plan my tasks. Using a checklist to determine completion of tasks on daily basis. Evaluation Performance in task prioritisation will be evaluated by assessing the extent to which I complete all the tasks required in my workplace and at college. Review date This activity will be completed on a daily basis. Conclusion This reflective work has identified areas that require further development in improving my managerial and leadership skills. Based on this reflective work, it is evident that I lack skills in different areas including leadership, task prioritization, effective coaching, managerial skills in performance appraisal and management consultancy. Therefore, these skills have to be improved to ensure that I am effective as manager and leader. Therefore, action plans for improving the different skills have been presented. It is expected that implementation of the action plans will equip with skills that are applicable to my workplace and educational setting. References Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s handbook of management and leadership: developing effective people skills for better leadership and management. PA: Kogan Page. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2014). Performance appraisal. [Online]Available from: http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/performance-appraisal.aspx (Accessed: 15 Dec. 14). De Caluwe, L., & Reitsma, E. (2010) `Competencies of management consultants: a research study of senior management consultants’, In Buono, A., & Jamieson, D (Eds), Consultation for organisational change, pp. 15-40. NC: Information age publishing. Goleman, D. (2006) Social Intelligence: the new science of human relationship. NY: Banam books. Heslin, P., & Vandewalle, D. (2011) `Performance appraisal procedural justice: the role of a manager’s implicit person theory’. Journal of Management, vol.37, no.6, pp.1694-1718. Institute of Management Consultants (2014) The management consultancy competency framework. [Online] Available from: http://www.imcusa.org/?page=CONSULTINGCOMPETENCY (Accessed: 15 Dec. 14). Jarvis, M. (2005) The psychology of effective learning and teaching. UK: Nelson Thornes Ltd. Maltbia, T., Marsick, V., & Ghosh, R. (2014) `Executive and organisational coaching: a review of insights drawn from literature for inform HRD practices’. Advances in Developing Human Resources, vol.16, no.2, pp.161-83. Marks, C., Mathieu, J., & Zaccaro, S. (2001) `A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes’, Academy of Management Review, vol.26, pp. 356-76. Morgeson, F., DeRue, S., & Karam, E. (2010) `Leadership in teams: a functional approach to understanding leadership structures and processes’. Journal of Management, vol.36, no.1, pp.5-39. O’Broin, A., & Palmer, S. (2009) `Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance: a cognitive behavioural coaching perspective’. International Coaching Psychology Review, vol.4, no.2, pp.184-94. Pinet, A., & Sander, P. (2013) The only negotiation book you’ll ever need. Littlefield Street, MA: Adams Media.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

There are a heterogeneous group of degenerative diseases that involve destruction of the large motor neurons of the brain. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is one. The motor effects of this disease can be devastating. The usual course is a progression to death within 3 to 4 years. In the United Kingdom, ALS is often known as motor neuron disease. ALS is a progressive neuromuscular disease that weakens and eventually destroys motor neurons that connect the brain with the skeletal muscles.NIEHS grantee Serge Przedborski of Columbia University has pioneered the investigation of the molecular mechanisms leading to the death of neurons that occurs in ALS and Parkinson disease. ALS, the most common adult-onset paralytic disease, is most commonly diagnosed in middle age, and affects men more often than women. Patients gradually lose the ability to speak, swallow, and move voluntarily. Sensory function and intellectual ability are unaffected, and death usually results from loss of respira tory function.The disease affects all racial, socioeconomic, and ethnic groups, and the life expectancy of ALS patients is usually three to five years after diagnosis. ALS results in progressive damage to the pyramidal motor system. There is a degeneration of both the upper and lower motor neurons leading to muscle weakness, atrophy, and losts of function. In most cases there is no loss of sensation, and intellect and sphincter control are preserved. The damage is typically bilateral, and although usually rapid in progression, the disease may on occasion proceed slowly, or stabilize after a period of progression. The reported incidence is about 0.4 to 1. 8/100,000 (Tandan & Bradley, 1986) and prevalence estimates range from 4 to 7/100,000. The mean age of onset lies between 55 and 60 and the disease is more common in males than females (2:1; Hudson, 1981). Death is usually preceded by progressive respiratory failure. The cause of ALS is unknown. In about 5% to 10% of cases the disea se is familial; in most of these cases the mode of inheritance is autosomal dominant. The disease also occurs amongst the Chamorros on the island of Guam at a much higher rate than elsewhere, suggesting an environmental toxin can cause the disease (Rowland, 1987).However, the majority of cases arise sporadically. Cognitive Deficits Clinicians working with ALS patients generally conclude that the disease does not cause dementia. Although there are cases of ALS where dementia does present, this can be attributed to the concurrent effects of DAT (Caroscio, 1986). Testing ALS patients with intellectual scales has produced mixed results. Poloni, Capitani, Mazzini, and Ceroni (1986) found no difference on the WAIS between 21 ALS subjects and 21 comparison subjects with nondementing neurological conditions.In two other studies (Gallassi, Montagna, Ciardulli, Lorusso, Mussuto, & Stracciari, 1985; Iwaski, Kinoshita, Ikeda, Takamiya, & Shiojima, 1990) intellectual deterioration in ALS patient s was found when the test results were compared to those of healthy controls. It remains to be determined whether these cognitive changes occurred as a result of ALS, or whether the differences were due to the nonspecific effects of hospitalization and treatment. ALS is not generally regarded as a dementing disorder. Psychosocial ConsequencesThe individual with ALS faces major problems in communication because of dysarthria, a reduction in mobility, pain from muscle atrophy, and the knowledge that the disease will progress to incapacity and death. Motor dysfunctions occur in the absence of cognitive decline and so patients retain the capacity for awareness of their disabilities. The nature of the disorder is likely to provoke an emotional response. The onset of the disease provides an illustration of the working of psychosocial stress model outlined in the next chapter. Although ALS patients confront the disorder with courage (B.S. Gould, 1980), the debilitation caused by the diseas e challenges the capacity to adjust in even the most resolute individual. Luloff (1986) describes the demands and emotional sequelae of the disease as follows: Loss of resources — physical, psychological, social, and economic — evokes grief and depression. As the patient anticipates experiences or experiences failures in mastering problems and challenges of everyday life, he develops feelings of helplessness†¦. Helplessness and failure, real or anticipated, lead to decrease of self-esteem, sense of worth, dignity and confidence.Anger becomes mixed with fear and accentuated by limitations in ability to master everyday problems, in achieving relief from tension, and in providing oneself with gratifying experiences. Anger is often directed against oneself for being damaged, helpless, and worthless, and a failure. . . . Anger is also directed against other persons, and at natural processes which appear to be increasingly harsh and threatening as the individual becomes progressively impaired and weaker. (p. 268) Although anecdotal reports of depressive and emotional reactions are common in the literature, few studies have examined emotionality in ALS systematically.Houpt, B. S. Gould, and Norris (1977) found that the incidence of depression in ALS was comparable to that in cancer patients. About 65% of the ALS patients scored in the nil-mild range on the BDI, 32. 5% were moderately depressed, and 2. 5% were severely depressed. Other reactions to ALS have been cited in clinical reports including denial (Tandan & Bradley, 1985), guilt (Luloff, 1986), and diminished self-esteem (Ringel, 1987). Emotional lability and inappropriateness have also been reported on occasion (Gallagher, 1989). These symptoms have been attributed to damage to brainstem nuclei.Controlled investigations of psychiatric symptoms suggest these are not a consequence of ALS (Houpt et al. , 1977; Peters, Wedell, & Mulder, 1977). Families and caregivers are likely also to feel dist ressed by the onset and progress of the disease. The physical deficits reduce the patient's mobility and communication, leading to greater dependence on the family for emotional and functional support. The demands involved in caring for the ALS sufferer at home can result in the caregiver feeling alone, housebound, and unappreciated. Financial concerns and preexisting family conflict may accentuate these problems (Ringel, 1987).For spousal caregivers there are many changes in role to be contemplated. Finally it is important to recognize that many people with ALS adapt to their illness in a creative, positive, and stoical manner. In an insightful commentary, B. S. Gould (1980) described how many ALS patients project a positive aspect to the people around them. Although this may mask a deeper and realistic concern or fear, the use of some degree of denial may represent an adaptive response to the disease. In his view, the role of the counselor may be to provide a supportive environmen t in which this despair may be acknowledged:The ALS patients in our series frequently maintained a strategy of partial denial throughout their illness, but in a most healthy fashion. Reality was not denied as much as redefined; the most distressing immutable aspects of the disease were not part of ordinary conscious functioning, and hope was maintained. Under safe conditions that allowed reflection and ventilation, however, the second-order denial was easily overridden; distressing awareness was allowed to enter the consciousness in a controlled fashion, and considerable dysphoric tension was discharged.Treatment Highlights In view of the fact that by far there is no treatment for ALS and there is no known cure. Current theraphy consists of a daily dose of an experimental drug. For this reason, it is still best to count on the available resources for the treatment of ALS. The drug myotrophin will be injected twice a day, alternating left abdomen, right abdomen, left thigh, right thi gh to reduce scarring, as well as regular visits from occupational and physical therapists. Neither drug is really thought to do much, but they are all there is right now.The physical therapy controls the rate of atrophy and minimizes edema in the extremities. It is also helpful to ingest huge amounts of vitamins. Three thousand milligrams a day of vitamin C and 800 milligrams of vitamin E, both of which are thought to be especially important in protecting the outer nerve cell sheath. Sublingual B12, antioxidants, CoQ10 and other dietary supplements are also thought to slow the disease’s progression. Ventilation is Still on Top From the patients’ perspectives, there are certain issues on the use of mechanical ventilation for the treatment of ALS.These may include the examination of the process of and factors involved in decision making by people severely disabled by the disease by the time they face the choice of whether to use the support of mechanical ventilation. Mo reover, issues that should also be addressed will include patients’ impact on family, the decision as related to level of disability, and the ventilation availability through a nasal mask. Research format will include several general questions along with a demographic information questionnaire.These general questions will focus on obtaining information about the process of the participant in their consideration of the use of mechanical ventilation, their current decision on the use of mechanical ventilation, the influence of others, and their decision’s commitment. Interviews will also be utilized for the participants so that they will be rated according to their function in the areas of speech, swallowing, lower and upper extremities with the use of ALS Severity Scale as designed by Hillel et al.(1989). The scale allows for rapid, ordinal measurement of the aforementioned areas. Each symptomatic area is rated from 1 to 10, with 10 indicating normal functioning and 1 r eflecting the most severe disablement. A total score of 40 would denote normal functioning in all four areas. Since several participants were unaware of available ventilatory options, the physician on the research team individually met with the participants who had not already gained knowledge concerning ventilatory methods.During these meetings, the physician imparted basic information on the following: the disease process that leads to respiratory insufficiency, simple measures such as positioning in alleviating respiratory distress, the capability to discontinue use of assisted ventilation, availability of palliative measures in end-stage ALS, care needs of people with the use of mechanical ventilation (such as suctioning of excess secretions; management of the ventilator itself, including arrangement for regular maintenance; and possible necessity of a caregiver 24 hours a day), and types of mechanical ventilation.The two basic methods of mechanical ventilation are a nasal mask and a tracheostomy. A tracheostomy is a surgical opening into the trachea to which a ventilator hose is connected. The nasal mask method is noninvasive and involves wearing a plastic mask apparatus over the nose, held in place by a strap around the back of the head. The mask can be awkward and uncomfortable and may slip out of place at night. Limitations In view of the reason that only a limited time was allowed for completion of the work, fiscal and temporal constraints were in effect, thus limiting the size of the subject sample.The principal author was also the clinical social worker for the participants. The principal author's familiarity with the participants may have influenced the selection process and the responses of the participants. Patients who had no means of communication were not approached to take part in the study. Participant population was unequally distributed by gender, as there were 11 men and two women, and by race, as all were white. All participants had a co mparable baseline knowledge of ventilatory methods.Four participants were atypical of classical ALS in that they had been diagnosed as having the disease for between nine and 23 years. A significant portion of the interviews with those participants already using mechanical ventilation was retrospective and based on recall. Not all participants answered all questions, and not all questions were applicable to all participants. Results may not be replicable with a different or larger sample. Conclusions Both past and present researches have failed on their quest for the cure or treatment of ALS.While this is apparently true, there are nevertheless several treatments that are found to be promising and responsive to patients. Individually, a specific approach may not be effective enough for treating ALS but a collaboration and combination of all known and practiced treatments is proved to be helpful. By now, this is the least that we can do for treating ALS while attempts are made in fin ding a cure for this certain incurable disease. References Caroscio J. (Ed. ). (1986). Amyotraphic lateral sclerosis: A guide to patient care. New York: Thieme.Gallagher J. P. (1989). Pathologic laughter and crying in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A search for their origin. Acia Neurologica Scandinavica. 80, 114-117. Gallassi R. , Montagna P. , Ciardulli C. , Lorusso S. , Mussuto V. , & Stracciari A. (1985). Cognitive impairment in motor neuron disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 71, 480-484. Gould, B. S. (1980). Psychiatric aspects. In D. W. Mulder (Ed. ), The diagnosis and treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (pp. 157-168). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Hillel, A. D. , Miller, R. M., Yorkston, K. , McDonald, E. , Norris, E H. , & Konikow, N. (1989). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Severity Scale. Neuroepidemiology. 8, 142-150. Houpt J. L. , Gould B. S. , & Norris F. H. (1977). â€Å"Psychological characteristics of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis†. Psyc hosomatic Medicine. 39, 299-303. Hudson A. J. (1981). â€Å"Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and its association with dementia, Parkinsonism, and other neurological disorders: A review†. Brain. 104, 217-247. Iwasaki Y. , Kinoshita M. , Ikeda K. , Takamiya K. , & Shiojima Y. (1990).â€Å"Cognitive impairment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and its relation to motor disabilities†. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 81, 141-143. Luloff P. B. (1986). â€Å"Reactions of patients, family, and staff in dealing with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis†. In J. Caroscio (Ed. ), Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A guide to patient care (pp. 266-271). New York: Thieme Publishers. Peters P. K. , Wedell M. S. , & Mulder P. W. (1977). â€Å"Is there a characteristic personality profile in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis? † Archives of Neurology. 35, 321-322. Poloni M. , Capitani E.Mazzini L. , & Ceroni M. (1986). â€Å"Neuropsychological meas ures in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and t heir relationship with CT-scan assessed cerebral atrophy†. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 74, 257-260. Ringel S. P. (1987). Neuromuscular disorders. New York: Raven. Rowland L. P. (1987). â€Å"Motor neuron diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Research progress†. Trends in Neurosciences. 10, 393-397. Tandan R. , & Bradley W. G. (1985). â€Å"Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Part 1. Clinical features, pathology, and ethical issues in management†. Annals of Neurology. 18, 271-280

Expansion Essay Essay

There were two presidents that did a great deal for our country in the area of expansion. These two presidents are Thomas Jefferson and James K. Polk. Though they had completely different policies on expansion and foreign affairs, both of them vastly expanded the country. Jefferson was a believer in the Monroe Doctrine which basically said we will mind our own busi ness. He was also a very firm believer in a strict interpretation of the constitution. He did not look to vastly expand our country and when the opportunity presented itself he had a hard time making the right decision. The United States was surrounded by European owned areas: England had Canada, Spain had Florida, and France had Louisiana. Fearing a possible war Jefferson strengthened the army especially by Louisiana. This act scared Napoleon, he was in a war with England and didn’t even need the Louisiana Territory, so fearing a war with the U.S. and needing money for his war with England he offered to sell the wh ole Louisi ana Territory to us for very cheap. Jefferson not sure if the constitution justified the act of making this purchase struggled with the decision. He decided he didn’t have much of a choice and accepted Napoleons offer. On the other hand, James K. Polk was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, which was the belief that the United States was predestined to control all of North America. When Polk ran in the 1844 election his campaign slogan was 54-40 or fight. Though he never got that boundary he did get a lot more in different parts of the country. After Texas revolted from Mexico Polk was easy to convince that the U.S. should step in and take Texas from Mexico. Though he wanted Texas he felt that the greatest prize would be California. After Mexico repeatedly declined Polk’s offers to buy Mexico and California Polk sent an army to the Rio Grande. This action led to the Mexican War. Polk pushed and pushed for Texas and California which after thirteen thousand American lives and fifty thousand Mexican lives were lost he got his land. Both of these presidents expanded the area of our country a tremendously. Jefferson’s policies on expansion kept us out of war and doubled the size of our country with great land that would be much needed in coming years. Polk didn’t keep us out of war but he got us a lot. He gained the United States half a million acres of prime land. Texas was an excellent producer of cotton and other crops, while Califor nia was abundant in gold causing the gold rush where thousands of men would head west to California in search of gold. Though Polk and Jefferson had almost opposite policies, in the area of expansion, they both ac quired much land for the United States. Jefferson, the believer in the Monroe Doctrine, and Polk the believer in Manifest Destiny, probably would not have agreed with each other but both did a lot of good for our country.

Is the UK economy out of recession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Is the UK economy out of recession - Essay Example But this hope was to prove a mirage as the trend reversed in subsequent months. Though the UK took a little while to catch up with the crisis in the United States, at the beginning of the second quarter of 2008, the region’s economy was in acute recession. It has been close to two years since the onset of recession in the UK and the economic condition of the region remains weak and vulnerable. While some economists assert that the turnaround is already underway, others take a more pessimistic view. This essay will try to answer this important question, by way of perusing scholarly and news media resources. (Lynch, 2009) The recession that began in early 2008 gave no signs of recovery even after one full year. As the industry data for third quarter 2009 revealed, the economy shrank a further 0.4 % in during this period, which completed the sixth consecutive quarter in decline. As per the Office for National Statistics, by this time â€Å"output has slumped 5.9% since the onset of recession - almost as bad as the 6% slump seen in the early 1980s. The lingering decline came despite interest rates at a record low of 0.5% since March, additional Government spending and an unprecedented pounds 175 billion boost to the money supply through quantitative easing† (Lynch, 2009). But even as the UK was enduring this economic decline, neighbouring countries such as France and Germany have already shown early signs of recovery. While neighbouring countries in Europe were already into recovery, it was only during the heralding of year 2010 that the UK economy showed clear signs of recovery. Financial experts have declared that technically the UK economy has emerged from recession, but concerns still remain about the stability and strength of the pound against the dollar and the euro. Due to the internal economic turmoil, there is a strong possibility for deflation of currency during

Efficiency of Cloud Computing Data Centers Thesis

Efficiency of Cloud Computing Data Centers - Thesis Example the respective organization, whereas, cloud computing is referred to as the ‘public cloud’ since it is available for use by any individual who might need instantaneous computing capability. This innovative concept has even leaped the performance level of data centers to a new level and has reduced costs for independent developers and organizations. 2. Background Information Warr (2009) stated that cloud computing is also referred to as ‘Platform as a Service’ (PaaS) since developers use it as a platform to run their applications or even develop them from scratch without investing in the acquisition of the required operating system or server hardware. Another name that is used for this concept is ‘Infrastructure as a Service’ (IaaS); it includes the dynamic usage of CPUs, virtual servers, network, storage, systems software etc. Software as a service (SaaS) is another type of cloud computing that provides access to software to users on their need basis while the software runs on the vendor’s side of the data centers. The conventional mode of using the software requires the installation of the software on the user’s computer but this latest technology requires no such installation. Since many decades, internet users have been availing the service of uploading their documents and pictures on the internet by different services like Flickr, Snapfish etc; this concept has enabled the people to save their data ‘on the cloud’. The latest concept of cloud computing is far more usable, scalable and efficient for individual developers and organizations. 2.1 Criteria of Effective Performance Rajan (2011) provided some relevant characteristics that can be helpful to... This paper stresses that the conventional enterprise data centers have been found to possess several limitations and constraints that make their adoption difficult. Enterprise data centers constitute a limited storage capacity and much capital is needed to increase the scale of the data centers. Cloud computing data centers offer the level of scalability that facilitates almost unlimited expansion of the IT infrastructure. The cost of the cloud computing service is dependent on the usage of the requested resources therefore proves to cut costs by significant numbers. The adoption of this technology provides freedom in terms of maintenance and regular updates of the data center software and platforms. This report makes a conclusion that cloud computing data centers promote mobility since they can be accessed from anywhere on the web. Therefore, it can be concluded that cloud computing data centers prove to be effective in typical and atypical business conditions but fall short in the security area. The innovative techniques to improve the physical conditions of the data centers have benefitted the organizations, as well as the society since lesser energy is being consumed from the resources of the planet. Containerized servers, innovative data center designs, evaporative cooling, free-cooling are some of the techniques that have played their role in the reduction of PUE. The uauthor talks that the security standards of cloud computing shall be analyzed in detail for their effectiveness and the rate at which they are being adapted by the respective providers. Data encryption mechanisms shall also be studied that have been adapted by different organizations to improve the cloud comp uting services.

Taking Genre Out of Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Taking Genre Out of Music - Essay Example When listening to music, most will state interests according to the genre first as well as which singers or musicians are most popular within this genre. However, this limits the music because of the stereotypes which surround the music while changing the potential experiments which musicians might use without the music. To allow music to be accessible to all groups without labels or limits, the genre should be taken out of music. This allows those who are interested in different variations of music to find the best overall sounds while providing musicians with alternatives for experimentation. Furthermore, it would introduce a different sense of appreciation while the music would no longer be recognized first by the stereotypes. The concept of genre is one which is based on labeling music according to what the songs by a specific artist sound like. Often, this depicts the instrumentation used, arrangements that are played and the overall sound that the musician conveys. ... The content of both is similar, specifically with the idea of women needing men in relationships. Lyrics by Griggs include â€Å"she don’t know how much I need her, she don’t know I’d fall apart† and lyrics with McGraw are similar, with â€Å"just to see you smile / I’d do anything that you wanted me to.† The same topic as well as the same arrangements is then seen because of the expectations with the genre. Another aspect that is related to the genre and the approach to the music is based on responses from society and how this relates to the music. The genre is all that most will look at before determining if the music should be listened to or not. Stereotypes are built around the genre of music, specifically because of the expectations with the music. More important, the stereotypes create a specific sense of personality and behavior which is known to define the individual and how they respond to the music. Beliefs one may have, behaviors f rom society and their association with the genre then creates divisions between specific groups of individuals. All which create these different behaviors are known to relate directly to genres of music which are used to identify the individual, which creates stereotypes not only from the music but also from the cultural relationship which many create from this (Rentfrow, Gosling, 306). The association with genre that is based on the expectations from the musician as well as the social association from those in society is one which becomes limiting in expression. This is important to note because of stereotypes which are created because of the identity of genre which many use to show a specific behavior and which creates a sense of separation from others.

Academic & personal integrity Readings and Essays Essay

Academic & personal integrity Readings and Essays - Essay Example The scandal has done a significant harm the dean, who for 28 years has dedicated her service to the university. Students loved her, and felt sorry for her. Her popularity was evident, with the author stating that â€Å"On the campus, where Ms. Jones was widely admired, almost revered, for her humour, outspokenness and common sense, students and faculty members alike seemed both saddened and shocked.† Many students and employees of the institution loved her. The development happened at the peak of her career, having published a book promoting â€Å"Less Stress, More Success: A New Approach to Guiding Your Teen through College Admissions and Beyond†, with Dr. Kenneth R. Ginsburg that she had been promoting by then. Not only was her career was damaged, by her act of dishonesty, many people saw her as a cheat, ruining her public image. Most of her friends hoped that the development does not ruin the success of her book. Her dishonesty has done a lot of damage to the people around her as well. The students who loved her for her charms and her humorous nature felt sorry for her, while her colleague workers felt she did not have to lie for her academic credentials. As a public figure, with the promotion campaign for her book, she is likely to be seen quite negatively by the people around her. Moreover, her book advocated for not only avoiding stress to succeed, but the need for integrity, a virtue she herself did not uphold for close to three decades. While the college was at a big loss for the position that she held and her services, the various schools that she lectured were likely to miss her talks. She had contributed immensely to the development of the application form for the students, such that students were not required to fill 10 co-curricular activities. People engaged in dishonesty acts should not be let to go free, as this

Patient satisfaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Patient satisfaction - Essay Example In developing the questionnaire, one must focus one finding focus on achieving three set of goals namely provision of quality health care to patients, treating them with courtesy as well as respect and making the health services affordable to the patients. The questions to be used in the process should thus focus on the three issues namely quality, interpersonal and accessibility. The question should be brief with careful wording so as to ensure that they are not biased, vague or enclosed. There is need to use a consistent scale while developing the questions such as likert scale, 10-point scale or the four point scale. The use of scale assists in the ensuring accuracy and precision in the determination of the satisfaction level of the patient. Anonymity should be highly emphasized as this will allow patients to give their honest opinion. The entire process need to be anonymous and the forms should be filled in private and the questions need to be open-ended so as to make the entire process as flexible as possible (Shelton,

Analysis of the Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis of the Media - Essay Example Occasionally, ridiculous plans will spring up to send them back to Britain – and these plans usually involve the radio transmitter (which is where the show gets its name) (BBC 2010). While all of this is going on, Rene is pretending to be his own identical twin (also named Rene), because he actually created a ruse about his own death to keep the SS away from him. This means that his wife is masquerading as his â€Å"widow,† who occasionally fields advances from potential suitors and who more often tries to entertain the patrons with her singing. Because her voice is so awful, though, customers either just leave or shove some cheese into their ears to avoid the maelstrom. In the meantime, Rene is carrying on with his waitresses; Edith generally finds out, but Rene can always talk his way out of the situation. This is helpful for him, because the gay German Lieutenant Gruber, as well as the attractive females in the communist resistance are always making advances toward h im. The episodes run consecutively, with the plot continuing from one episode to the next, but it is possible to watch each one and enjoy it independently. When each new episode begins, Rene shows up at the beginning, narrating the past events to the audience and bringing them up to date on his latest imbroglio (Brown 2008). When it comes to the structuring of the comedy, 'Allo 'Allo! emerges as part of a genre that appeared on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean in the decades after World War II. Hogan's Heroes, an American program, was one of the first television series that was able to use the Nazi machine as a source of comedy. The bumbling Colonel Klink, the commandant of Stalag 13, was constantly outwitted by his... The interplay between Basil and his wife, Sybil, serves up some of the most memorable comedic moments in the show. While she might agree, at least in principle, with his desire to make the hotel a more upscale establishments, she disagrees loudly (and sometimes violently) with his schemes. When Basil is trying a new idea, he usually gets Polly (the maid) or Manuel to help him – and to hide the truth from Sybil. Despite the anger that courses between them, though, it is clear that there is still some tenderness between them. â€Å"The Anniversary† is all about Basil's attempt to put together a surprise party for her (which goes awry when he pretends to forget the significance of the day, in order to make it even more of a surprise to her, and she storms out). However, Sybil is not a flat terror; instead, she often has the better hand when it comes to managing the hotel, particularly when there are difficult customers to be dealt with. There are other times, though, when she is talking loudly on the phone in the middle of a very busy scene at the hotel, and her braying laugh and loud voice make her a source o annoyance to others on the show.Manuel may be one of the most memorable characters from the show. From Barcelona, he still has only a limited grasp of British customs – and the English language.

The Speckled Band Essay Example for Free

The Speckled Band Essay Both Lamb to the Slaughter and The Speckled Band share some of the characteristics of murder mysteries. Explain the similarities and differences between the two stories and say which story you think is more compelling to read. T he Speckled Band was written in 1892 during Queen Victorias reign over Britain. At the time the aristocratic society was paranoid about crime and rumours and myths about murderers such as Jack the Ripper did not help. The squalid chaos of a city (London) that hadnt changed much since Tudor times, with its dark narrow alleyways and badly lit streets created a haven for murderers, rapists, prostitutes and petty thieves. The arrival of a super sleuth character was obviously going to appeal to the literary clique. Sherlock Holmes was the solution to all their problems although in reality the Police Force was failing badly. In contrast Lamb to the Slaughter was written in a completely different era post-war, Elizabethan Britain, a period where attitudes and the Police Force had developed considerably from Conan Doyles Victorian London. The nations feeling had changed and had become more tolerant of women and including them more in a previously male world. However, the perfect housewife was still many womens idea of life. This is reflected in Mary Maloney, the stay at home idealistic wife and her devotion to her husband who, does not return this and wants to leave her for another woman. In The Speckled Band the mood is of heightened tension and curiosity as Dr Watsons daily routine is interrupted by the arrival of Miss Stoner, the stepdaughter of Dr Grimesby Roylott of Stoke Moran. She tells them of the demise of her sister Julia, the low whistle, the gypsies and the wild animals that the Doctor keeps. Holmes then receives a visit from Dr Roylott who threatens Holmes and Watson not to meddle in my affairs. Holmes and Watson then immediately travel to Stoke Moran, heedless of the Doctors warning, and go to see Miss Stoner in the family home. When they arrive, Holmes tells Miss Stoner about Dr Roylotts visit: good heavens he is so cunning that I never know when I am safe from him and they go and explore the manor. They learn that Miss Stoner is now sleeping When they are in Miss Helen Stoners room, Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson find no reason for her to be moved out of her room. Whilst in Miss Julia Stoners room, there Holmes finds clues as to the cause of her death but does not tell Watson or Miss Stoner what he thinks. Holmes then tells Miss Stoner to spend the night in the local Inn while he and Dr Watson try to catch Dr Roylott. When Dr Roylott sets the Swamp Adder through the ventilator and down the bell rope Holmes beats it back and it bites Dr Roylott killing him. Lamb to the Slaughter is very different as the atmosphere is relaxed and contented with the six-month pregnant Mary Maloney waiting patiently for her husband to come home. She is sewing and has a whiskey and soda ready for Patrick Maloneys homecoming and all of this amounts to the feeling of peace. In Lamb to the Slaughter Mary Maloney, Patrick Maloneys wife, is waiting for him to come home from work. He tells her that he wants to leave her for another woman, she then goes to make dinner and pulls out a leg of lamb. Mary Maloney then hits her husband with the lamb and kills him. She then goes down to the grocers to give herself an alibi. She then comes home and rings the Police who conduct the investigation but end up eating the evidence: the leg of lamb. However some of the ways that Roald Dahl uses to describe Mary Maloney act as a warning as to what might happen: curiously tranquil this suggests that there is something odd about her as being tranquil is not normally tranquil. Also, there was a slow smiling air about her this has mysterious connotations and implies that there is something more to Mary Maloney than the reader first thinks. Dr Roylott is a very violent and psychotic character who has heated fits of rage: Dont you dare to meddle with my affairs I am a dangerous man to fall foul of . He is a physically huge man who uses intimidation to force people to do things. When Dr Roylott hears of Miss Helen Stoners proposed marriage, she suddenly dies, this indicates that because his late wife (and the girls mother) left them money to be given to them when they got married. Dr Roylott is on a very small income and if the girls got married then he would be broke. Also he is a huge broad man who is very strong and capable of bending Holmes iron poker. Conan Doyle makes it very obvious from the start that Dr Roylott is capable of murder and our suspicions are correct, he is the only character in the story who would murder. Dr Roylott is not successful because although he manages to kill Julia Stoner but before he can dispose of Helen Stoner Sherlock Holmes solves the case and accidentally kills Dr Roylott. Dr Roylott is not very believable in this day and age because the Victorians view of a murderer was a shifty looking character either very small and rat like or large and vicious. However nowadays we know that murderers can be anyone. Because of the Victorians etiquette rules and views, a female killer in Conan Doyles books would have caused a stir. However in Lamb to the Slaughter women were allowed a much freer role and so the idea of them becoming murderers was accepted by the readers. In both of the stories the villains (Dr Roylott and Mary Maloney) control the people around them, Dr Roylott controls people by threatening them with physical violence whereas Mary Maloney uses subtle emotional actions to convince the Police that shes innocent.

Music Essays Mozarts Piano Sonata Number 13

Music Essays Mozarts Piano Sonata Number 13 Mozart’s piano sonata number 13, K333, composed somewhere between 1779 and 1783. The first movement of Mozart’s piano sonata number 13, K333, composed somewhere between 1779 and 1783, (depending on the historical scholar), is a splendid, nimble piece of composition.   It is full of agility and complexity but manages to still be both very accessible and structured.   It also reflects Mozart’s admiration of and influence by Johann Christian Bach, a contemporary of Mozart’s who died in 1782.   Most musical scholars familiar with both composers agree that the opening motif of K333 bears a very flattering similarity to JC Bach’s Op. 5 no. 3 and Op. 17 no.4 piano sonatas.   Another overall source of influence is the style of the concertos of the time, grandiose and ebullient in style.   The first movement contains numerous concerto-esque flourishes that stray from the standard sonata paradigm, thereby adding an element of boldness to the piece. As far as the genre of piano sonatas go, K333 is otherwise fairly textbook in its construction. What is the significance of this?   The foundation of the sonata structure is the contrast, juxtaposition, and unification, of two musical keys.   Generally, these two keys are known as the ‘tonic’ and ‘dominant.’   The sonata establishes these two themes in an expository beginning section, followed by a development section in which, following the establishment of the second key, the tonality is deconstructed and its component musical segments are modified, explored, expanded upon, etc.   At the end of this development section, the piece returns to the tonic key in order to recapitulate the material from the exposition, â€Å"without the shift of key that characterized the exposition, thus harmonically unifying what was previously contrasted material.† (Edexcel, 2001)   The sonata as a general paradigm, then, is inherently a fascinating exercise in ‘voice leading,’ or the way in which individual musical parts, or ‘voices’, interact to form chord progressions.   Individual composers were noted for their particular voice-leading styles, as each possessed particular eccentricities and tendencies when it came to tackling the challenge of creatively transitioning from chord to chord within progressions, movements, or entire pieces.   The particular rules, if you will, of the sonata were always challenges that afforded composers, e.g. Mozart, the opportunity to showcase their voice-leading creativity; specifically, how to navigate the tension and journey between the sonata’s tonic and dominant keys.   K333 is no exception and the Edexcel piece is helpful in providing a launching point for understanding Mozart’s approach to K333: K333 is written in 4/4 time and is in the key of B-flat major; it specifically proceeds as follows, per the standard sonata conventions of the time: Exposition: bars 1-63. Development: bars 64-93. Recapitulation: bars 94-165. Bars 1-10 present the tonic key, which is B-flat major.   The musical theme(s) used to present the tonic key is/are known as the ‘first subject.’In bar 10, Mozart restates the opening of the piece, except transposed an octave lower.In bar 12, Mozart ‘drops’ an E-natural in the RH (right hand).   The significance of this note is that it introduces a C-major dominant 7th harmony that marks the transition of the piece to the dominant key, F-major, and is a good example of Mozart’s interesting voice-leading choices.In bars 13.4, 14.4, and 15.4, the RH sprinkles a descending group of semiquavers (also known as sixteenth notes) which illustrate that Mozart is, even early on, playfully exploring variations of the first subject – even before the introduction of the second.In bar 17.3, Mozart ‘drops’ a B-natural in the LH (left hand).   This note creates a G major dominant 7th harmony, which further punctuates the evolution away from the tonic key of B-flat major.In bar 22, Mozart accentuates the piece with an arpeggiation of a C major chord.   As the piece transitions to the key of F major, the C major chord is to become the new dominant chord; therefore, the arpeggiation is a preview or announcement of sorts of the impending transition.   This is one of many different stylistic manifestations of creative voice-leading.Bars 22-30 introduce the second subject, in the key of F major as mentioned above.   There are rhythmic similarities, however, to the first subject despite the key change.In bars 31-35, Mozart teases the listener by flirting with a transition to the key of G-minor, transitioning briefly for one bar before returning to F major and proceeding traditionally.Bar 64 commences the development section.   The quaver (eighth-note) rhythmic triads featured in Bar 1 are reintroduced and embellished upon by Mozart between bars 64 and 70.Bars 71-86 showcases Mozart’s further propensity to toy w ith the sonata structure by bending its rules without breaking them, per se.   He changes keys here here into F minor briefly, which is unexpectedly dramatic and concerto-like, and the right hand darts to the highest possible F note on a piano.   The darkness suggested by the F minor flirtation is explored further with brief tangents into C minor, E flat minor, and G minor between bars 75 and 86.Bars 87-90 feature an F major dominant 7th chord, which uses the chord of F to signal the imminent transition into the recapitulation section, which will take the piece back to B-flat major.Bars 94-105 feature the commencement of the recapitulation, a complete replica of the initial exposition until Mozart tosses in an A-flat chord in the RH at bar 105, continuing even in the recapitulation to introduce unusual elements.Bars 119-143 features the reappearance of the second subject in nearly identical form as its original presentation, except transposed to the tonic key.Bars 152-165 compri se the coda, which is mostly a duplication of bars 50-63 of the exposition with some flourishes thrown in, showing Mozart refuses to completely adhere to structure for structure’s sake. What is pleasurable about the piece overall, then, is clear.   Mozart is faithful to the stylistic requirements of the genre, not deviating from the overall structure, while being creative with the execution of the interplay between the two keys he employs.   Furthermore, Mozart’s voice-leading technique is bold and enhances the piece’s complexity, particularly the mood-darkening introduced by his transitions into minor keys, including F minor, and also in his methods of announcing transitions between keys by flourishes or arpeggios. Finally, it is worth mentioning that other technical elements, though perhaps unmoving to an expert, are nonetheless astonishing to a layperson or non-musician.   The tempo Mozart utilizes is astonishingly brisk given the acrobatics required by the composition.   To appreciate the piece is also to appreciate the skill necessary for a person to perform it competently, much less expressively. BIBLIOGRAPHY Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus.   Piano Sonata No. 13 in B flat, K.333, circa 1781 Mozart: Piano Sonata in B-flat K333, first movement in Edexcel A Level Syllabus Analysis [book on-line] (Edexcel, 2001, accessed 11 June 2005); available from http://www.musicteachers.co.uk/resources/k333.pdf

The Electromagnetic Waves And Spectrum

The Electromagnetic Waves And Spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged according to frequency and wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous. The sun, earth, and other bodies radiate electromagnetic energy of varying wavelengths. Electromagnetic energy passes through space at the speed of light in the form of sinusoidal waves. The wavelength is the distance from wave crest to wave crest (see figure below). Light is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen and sensed by the human eye, but this energy exists at a wide range of wavelengths. The micron is the basic unit for measuring the wavelength of electromagnetic waves. The spectrum of waves is divided into sections based on wavelength. The shortest waves are gamma rays, which have wavelengths of 10e-6 microns or less. The longest waves are radio waves, which have wavelengths of many kilometres. The range of visible consists of the narrow portion of the spectrum, from 0.4 microns (blue) to 0.7 microns (red). RANGE OF THE SPECTRUM EM waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength ÃŽÂ », or photon energy E. Frequencies range from 2.4ÃÆ'-1023 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts) and radio waves have very low energy (around femto electron volts). These relations are illustrated by the following equations: Where: c = 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light in vacuum and h = 6.62606896(33) ÃÆ'-10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢34 J s = 4.13566733(10) ÃÆ'-10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢15 eV s is Plancks constant. Whenever electromagnetic waves exist in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are travelling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated. Generally, EM radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behaviour of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behaviour also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries. Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon which has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as 2.9ÃÆ'-1027 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources. - The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighbouring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power, although the latter is, strictly speaking, not electromagnetic radiation at all (see near and far field) The distinction between X and gamma rays is based on sources: gamma rays are the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and sub nuclear/particle process, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons. Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 mega electron volts (0.96 pJ), whereas there a re many (77 known to be less than 10 keV (1.6 fJ)) low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 7.6 eV (1.22 aJ) nuclear transition of thorium-229), and despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin. Also, the region of the spectrum of the particular electromagnetic radiation is reference-frame dependent (on account of the Doppler shift for light) so EM radiation which one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos. However, for particles moving near the speed of light, this radiation will be blue-shifted in their rest frame. The highest energy cosmic ray protons are moving such that, in their rest frame, this radiation is blueshifted to high energy gamma rays which interact with the proton to produce bound quark-antiquark pairs (pions). This is the source of the GZK limit Radio Waves: whose wavelength range from more than 104 m to about 0.1m, are the results of charges accelerating through conducting wires. They are generated by such electronic devices as LC oscillators and are used in radio and television communication systems. Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimetre. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television, mobile phones, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves. The use of the radio spectrum is regulated by many governments through frequency allocation. Radio waves can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up, causing thermal effects and sometimes burns. This is exploited in microwave ovens. Microwaves: The super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) of microwaves come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. They have wavelengths ranging from approximately 0.3m to 10-4 m and are also generated by electronic devices. Because of their short wave lengths, they are well suited for radar system and for studying atomic and molecular properties of matter. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application of these waves. It has been suggested that the solar energy could be harnessed by beaming microwaves to the earth from a solar collector in space. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes such as Gunn and IMPATT devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave oven, this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in Wi-Fi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. Volumetric heating, as used by microwaves, transfer energy through the material electromagnetically, not as a thermal heat flux. The benefit of this is a more uniform heating and reduced heating time; microwaves can heat material in less than 1% of the time of conventional heating methods. When active, the average microwave oven is powerful enough to cause interference at close range with poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap consumer electronics. Infrared Waves: have wavelengths ranging from approximately 10-3m to the longest wavelength of visible light, 710-7m. These waves, produced by molecules and room temperature objects, are readily absorbed by most materials. The infrared energy absorbed by a substance appears as internal energy because the energy agitates objects atoms, increasing their vibrational or translational motion, which results in a temperature increase. Infrared radiation has practical and scientific applications in many areas, including physical therapy, IR photography and vibrational spectroscopy. The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts: Far-infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 ÃŽÂ ¼m). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earths atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges (windows) within the opaque range which allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 ÃŽÂ ¼m up to a few mm is often referred to as sub-millimetre in astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 ÃŽÂ ¼m. Mid-infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 ÃŽÂ ¼m). Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound. Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light. Visible light: It is the most familiar form of electromagnetic spectrum the human eye can detect. Light is produced by the rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules. The various wavelengths of visible light, which correspond to different colours, range from red (ÃŽÂ »=710-7) to violet (ÃŽÂ »=410-7). The sensitivity of the human eye is a function of wavelength, being a maximum of 5.510-7m. This is the range in which the sun and stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end. Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (790-400 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in our visual perception of the scene. Our brains visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit. At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and our technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data that can be translated into sound or an image. The coding used in such data is similar to that used with radio waves. Ultraviolet light: These cover wavelengths ranging from approximately 410-7 to 610-10m. The sun is an important source of ultraviolet (UV) light, which is the main cause of sun burn. Sunscreen lotions are transparent to visible light but absorb most of the ultraviolet light. The higher a sunscreens solar protection factor, or SPF, the greater the percentage of UV light absorbed. Ultraviolet rays have also been implicated in the formation of cataracts, a clouding of lens inside the eye. Most of the UV light from the sun is absorbed by ozone (O3) molecules in the earths upper atmosphere, in a layer called the stratosphere. This ozone shield converts lethal high energy UV energy into IR radiation, which in turn warms the stratosphere. Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). This is radiation whose wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum, and longer than that of an X-ray. Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them (see photoelectric effect), in general changing their mutual behaviour. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer, if the radiation irreparably damages the complex DNA molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven mutagen). The Sun emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn Earth into a barren desert. However, most of it is absorbed by the atmospheres ozone layer before reaching the surface. X-rays: They have wavelengths in the range from approximately 10-8m to 10-12m. The most common source of x-rays is the stopping of high-energy electrons upon bombarding a metal target. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine (a process known as radiography) and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy.. Because x-rays can damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to avoid unnecessary exposure or over exposure. X-rays are also used in the study of crystal structure because x-ray wavelengths are comparable to the atomic separation distances in solids (about 0.1nm). Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays., Neutron stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to study them. X-rays are given off by stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. Gamma rays: After hard X-rays comes gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Villard in 1900, these are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. They are electromagnetic waves emitted by radioactive nuclei (such as 60Co and 137Cs) and during certain nuclear reactions. High-energy gamma rays are a component of cosmic rays that enter the earths atmosphere from space. They have wavelength ranging from approximately 10-10m to less than 10-14m. Gamma rays are highly penetrating and produce serious damage when absorbed by living tissues. Consequently those working near such dangerous radiation must be protected with heavily absorbing material such as thick layers of lead. They are useful to astronomers in the study of high energy objects or regions, and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from radioisotopes. Gamma rays are also used for the irradiation of food and seed for sterilization, and in medicine they are used in radiation cancer therapy and some kinds of diagnostic imaging such as PET scans. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of Compton scattering. Note: There are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiations of some types have a mixture of the properties of those in two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can resonate some chemical bonds. Application Areas of Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic Waves in the modern world have led to evolvement of many advanced communication systems some of them are radio, television, radars, etc. We would now focus on how these electromagnetic waves which carry energy and momentum are used in various applications round the globe. TELEMETRY Telemetry is the process of making measurements from a remote location and transmitting those measurements to receiving equipment. The earliest telemetry systems, developed in the United States during the 1880s, monitored the distribution and use of electricity in a given region, and relayed this information back to power companies using telephone lines. By the end of World War I, electric companies used the power lines themselves as information relays, and though such electrical telemetry systems remain in use in some sectors, most modern telemetry systems apply radio signals. An example of a modern telemetry application is the use of an input device called a transducer to measure information concerning an astronauts vital signs (heartbeat, blood pressure, body temperature, and so on) during a manned space flight. The transducer takes this information and converts it into an electrical impulse, which is then beamed to the space monitoring station on Earth. Because this signal carries information, it must be modulated, but there is little danger of interference with broadcast transmissions on Earth. Typically, signals from spacecraft are sent in a range above 10 10 Hz, far above the frequencies of most microwave transmissions for commercial purposes. RADAR Radio waves can be used to send communication signals, or even to cook food; they can also be used to find and measure things. One of the most obvious applications in this regard is radar, an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. Radio makes it possible for pilots to see through clouds, rain, fog, and all manner of natural phenomena-not least of which is darkness. It can also identify objects, both natural and manmade, thus enabling a peacetime pilot to avoid hitting another craft or the side of a mountain. On the other hand, radar may help a pilot in wartime to detect the presence of an enemy. Nor is radar used only in the skies, or for military purposes, such as guiding missiles: on the ground, it is used to detect the speeds of objects such as automobiles on an interstate highway, as well as to track storms. In the simplest model of radar operation, the unit sends out microwaves toward the target, and the waves bounce back off the target to the unit. Though the speed of light is reduced somewhat, due to the fact that waves are travelling through air rather than through a vacuum, it is, nonetheless, possible to account for this difference. Hence, the distance to the target can be calculated using the simple formula d = vt, where d is distance, v is velocity, and t is time. Typically, a radar system includes the following: a frequency generator and a unit for controlling the timing of signals; a transmitter and, as with broadcast radio, a modulator; a duplexer, which switches back and forth between transmission and reception mode; an antenna; a receiver, which detects and amplifies the signals bounced back to the antenna; signal and data processing units; and data display units. In a monostatic unit-one in which the transmitter and receiver are in the same location-the unit has to be continually switched between sending and receiving modes. Clearly, a bistatic unit-one in which the transmitter and receiver antennas are at different locations-is generally preferable; but on an airplane, for instance, there is no choice but to use a monostatic unit. In order to determine the range to a target-whether that target be a mountain, an enemy aircraft, or a storm-the target itself must first be detected. This can be challenging, because only a small portion of the transmitted pulse comes back to the receiving antenna. At the same time, the antenna receives reflections from a number of other objects, and it can be difficult to determine which signal comes from the target. For an aircraft in a wartime situation, these problems are compounded by the use of enemy countermeasures such as radar jamming. Still another difficulty facing a military flyer is the fact that the use of radar itself-that is the transmission of microwaves-makes the aircraft detectable to opposing forces. MICROWAVE OVENS The same microwaves that transmit FM and television signals-to name only the most obviously applications of microwave for communication-can also be harnessed to cook food. The microwave oven, introduced commercially in 1955, was an outgrowth of military technology developed a decade before. During World War II, the Raytheon Manufacturing Company had experimented with a magnetron, a device for generating extremely short-wavelength radio signals as a means of improving the efficiency of military radar. While working with a magnetron, a technician named Percy Spencer was surprised to discover that a candy bar in his pocket had melted, even though he had not felt any heat. This led him to considering the possibilities of applying the magnetron to peacetime uses, and a decade later, Raytheons radar range hit the market. Those early microwave ovens had none of varied power settings to which modern users of the microwave-found today in two-thirds of all American homes-are accustomed. In the first microwaves, the only settings were on and off, because there were only two possible adjustments: either the magnetron would produce, or not produce, microwaves. Today, it is possible to use a microwave for almost anything that involves the heating of food that contains water-from defrosting a steak to popping popcorn. As noted much earlier, in the general discussion of electromagnetic radiation, there are three basic types of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Without going into too much detail here, conduction generally involves heat transfer between molecules in a solid; convection takes place in a fluid (a gas such as air or a liquid such as water); and radiation, of course, requires no medium. A conventional oven cooks through convection, though conduction also carries heat from the outer layers of a solid (for example, a turkey) to the interior. A microwave, on the other hand, uses radiation to heat the outer layers of the food; then conduction, as with a conventional oven, does the rest. The difference is that the microwave heats only the food-or, more specifically, the water, which then transfers heat throughout the item being heated-and not the dish or plate. Thus, many materials, as long as they do not contain water, can be placed in a microwave oven without being melted or burned. Metal, though it contains no water, is unsafe because the microwaves bounce off the metal surfaces, creating a microwave buildup that can produce sparks and damage the oven. In a microwave oven, microwaves emitted by a small antenna are directed into the cooking compartment, and as they enter, they pass a set of turning metal fan blades. This is the stirrer, which disperses the microwaves uniformly over the surface of the food to be heated. As a microwave strikes a water molecule, resonance causes the molecule to align with the direction of the wave. An oscillating magnetron causes the microwaves to oscillate as well, and this, in turn, compels the water molecules to do the same. Thus, the water molecules are shifting in position several million times a second, and this vibration generates energy that heats the water. RADIO COMMUNICATION Among the most familiar parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, in modern life at least, is radio. In most schematic representations of the spectrum, radio waves are shown either at the left end or the bottom, as an indication of the fact that these are the electromagnetic waves with the lowest frequencies, the longest wavelengths, and the smallest levels of photon energy. Included in this broad sub-spectrum, with frequencies up to about 10 7 Hertz are long-wave radio, short-wave radio, and microwaves. The areas of communication affected are many: broadcast radio, television, mobile phones, radar-and even highly specific forms of technology such as baby monitors. Though the work of Maxwell and Hertz was foundational to the harnessing of radio waves for human use, the practical use of radio had its beginnings with Marconi. During the 1890s, he made the first radio transmissions, and, by the end of the century, he had succeeded in transmitting telegraph messages across the Atlantic Ocean-a feat which earned him the Nobel Prize for physics in 1909. Marconis spark transmitters could send only coded messages, and due to the broad, long-wave length signals used, only a few stations could broadcast at the same time. The development of the electron tube in the early years of the twentieth century, however, made it possible to transmit narrower signals on stable frequencies. This, in turn, enabled the development of technology for sending speech and music over the airwaves. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AM AND FM. A radio signal is simply a carrier: the process of adding information-that is, complex sounds such as those of speech or music-is called modulation. The first type of modulation developed was AM, or amplitude modulation, which Canadian-American physicist Reginald Aubrey Fessenden (1866-1932) demonstrated with the first United States radio broadcast in 1906. Amplitude modulation varies the instantaneous amplitude of the radio wave, a function of the radio stations power, as a means of transmitting information. By the end of World War I, radio had emerged as a popular mode of communication: for the first time in history, entire nations could hear the same sounds at the same time. During the 1930s, radio became increasingly important, both for entertainment and information. Families in the era of the Great Depression would gather around large cathedral radios-so named for their size and shape-to hear comedy programs, soap operas, news programs, and speeches by important public figures such as President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Throughout this era-indeed, for more than a half-century from the end of the first World War to the height of the Vietnam Conflict in the mid-1960s-AM held a dominant position in radio. This remained the case despite a number of limitations inherent in amplitude modulation: AM broadcasts flickered with popping noises from lightning, for instance, and cars with AM radios tended to lose their signal when going under a bridge. Yet, another mode of radio transmission was developed in the 1930s, thanks to American inventor and electrical engineer Edwin H. Armstrong (1890-1954). This was FM, or frequency modulation, which varied the radio signals frequency rather than its amplitude. Not only did FM offer a different type of modulation; it was on an entirely different frequency range. Whereas AM is an example of a long-wave radio transmission, FM is on the microwave sector of the electromagnetic spectrum, along with television and radar. Due to its high frequency and form of modulation, FM offered a clean sound as compared with AM. The addition of FM stereo broadcasts in the 1950s offered still further improvements; yet despite the advantages of FM, audiences were slow to change, and FM did not become popular until the mid-to late 1960s. SIGNAL PROPAGATION AM signals have much longer wavelengths, and smaller frequencies, than do FM signals, and this, in turn, affects the means by which AM signals are propagated. There are, of course, much longer radio wavelengths; hence, AM signals are described as intermediate in wavelength. These intermediate-wavelength signals reflect off highly charged layers in the ionosphere between 25 and 200 mi (40-332 km) above Earths surface. Short-wave-length signals, such as those of FM, on the other hand, follow a straight-line path. As a result, AM broadcasts extend much farther than FM, particularly at night. At a low level in the ionosphere is the D layer, created by the Sun when it is high in the sky. The D layer absorbs medium-wavelength signals during the day, and for this reason, AM signals do not travel far during daytime hours. After the Sun goes down, however, the D layer soon fades, and this makes it possible for AM signals to reflect off a much higher layer of the ionosphere known as the F layer. (This is also sometimes known as the Heaviside layer, or the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, after English physicist Oliver Heaviside and British-American electrical engineer Arthur Edwin Kennelly, who independently discovered the ionosphere in 1902.) AM signals bounce off the F layer as though it were a mirror, making it possible for a listener at night to pick up a signal from halfway across the country. The Sun has other effects on long-wave and intermediate-wave radio transmissions. Sunspots, or dark areas that appear on the Sun in cycles of about 11 years, can result in a heavier buildup of the ionosphere than normal, thus impeding radio-signal propagation. In addition, occasional bombardment of Earth by charged particles from the Sun can also disrupt transmissions. Due to the high frequencies of FM signals, these do not reflect off the ionosphere; instead, they are received as direct waves. For this reason, an FM station has a fairly short broadcast range, and this varies little with regard to day or night. The limited range of FM stations as compared to AM means that there is much less interference on the FM dial than for AM. In the United States and most other countries, one cannot simply broadcast at will; the airwaves are regulated, and, in America, the governing authority is the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC, established in 1934, was an outgrowth of the Federal Radio Commission, founded by Congress seven years earlier. The FCC actually sells air, charging companies a fee to gain rights to a certain frequency. Those companies may in turn sell that air to ot